1. World Health Organization. The Asia-Pacific perspective: redefining obesity and its treatment. Sydney: Health Communications, 2000.
2. Ogden CL, Yanovski SZ, Carroll MD, et al. The epidemiology of obesity. Gastroenterology 2007;132:2087–2102.
3. Calle EE, Rodriguez C, Walker-Thurmond K, Thun MJ. Overweight, obesity, and mortality from cancer in a prospectively studied cohort of U.S. adults. N Engl J Med 2003;348:1625–1638.
4. Cicuttini FM, Baker JR, Spector TD. The association of obesity with osteoarthritis of the hand and knee in women: a twin study. J Rheumatol 1996;23:1221–1226.
5. Murphy KG, Bloom SR. Gut hormones and the regulation of energy homeostasis. Nature 2006;444:854–859.
6. Chaudhri OB, Field BC, Bloom SR. Gastrointestinal satiety signals. Int J Obes (Lond) 2008;32 Suppl 7:28–31.
7. Asakawa A, Inui A, Yuzuriha H, et al. Characterization of the effects of pancreatic polypeptide in the regulation of energy balance. Gastroenterology 2003;124:1325–1336.
8. Kojima M, Kangawa K. Ghrelin: structure and function. Physiol Rev 2005;85:495–522.
9. Monteiro MP, Batterham RL. The importance of the gastrointestinal tract in controlling food intake and regulating energy balance. Gastroenterology 2017;152:1707–1717.
10. Sahu A. Leptin signaling in the hypothalamus: emphasis on energy homeostasis and leptin resistance. Front Neuroendocrinol 2003;24:225–253.
12. Bjørbaek C, El-Haschimi K, Frantz JD, Flier JS. The role of SOCS-3 in leptin signaling and leptin resistance. J Biol Chem 1999;274:30059–30065.
13. Bjørbaek C, Elmquist JK, Frantz JD, Shoelson SE, Flier JS. Identification of SOCS-3 as a potential mediator of central leptin resistance. Mol Cell 1998;1:619–625.
15. Mulla CM, Middelbeek RJW, Patti ME. Mechanisms of weight loss and improved metabolism following bariatric surgery. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2018;1411:53–64.
16. Bulló M, García-Lorda P, Megias I, Salas-Salvadó J. Systemic inflammation, adipose tissue tumor necrosis factor, and leptin expression. Obes Res 2003;11:525–531.
17. Kim KY, Kim JK, Han SH, et al. Adiponectin is a negative regulator of NK cell cytotoxicity. J Immunol 2006;176:5958–5964.
18. Zhao Y, Sun R, You L, Gao C, Tian Z. Expression of leptin receptors and response to leptin stimulation of human natural killer cell lines. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2003;300:247–252.
19. Martín-Romero C, Santos-Alvarez J, Goberna R, Sánchez-Margalet V. Human leptin enhances activation and proliferation of human circulating T lymphocytes. Cell Immunol 2000;199:15–24.
20. Arslan E, Atilgan H, Yavaşoğlu I. The prevalence of Helicobacter pylori in obese subjects. Eur J Intern Med 2009;20:695–697.
22. Perdichizzi G, Bottari M, Pallio S, Fera MT, Carbone M, Barresi G. Gastric infection by Helicobacter pylori and antral gastritis in hyperglycemic obese and in diabetic subjects. New Microbiol 1996;19:149–154.
23. Bishara J, Farah R, Mograbi J, et al. Obesity as a risk factor for Clostridium difficile infection. Clin Infect Dis 2013;57:489–493.
24. Chandradas S, Khalili H, Ananthakrishnan A, et al. Does obesity influence the risk of Clostridium difficile infection among patients with ulcerative colitis? Dig Dis Sci 2018;63:2445–2450.
25. Berthoud HR. Vagal and hormonal gut-brain communication: from satiation to satisfaction. Neurogastroenterol Motil 2008;20 Suppl 1:64–72.
27. Kentish S, Li H, Philp LK, et al. Diet-induced adaptation of vagal afferent function. J Physiol 2012;590:209–221.
28. Norgren R, Smith GP. Central distribution of subdiaphragmatic vagal branches in the rat. J Comp Neurol 1988;273:207–223.
31. Burdyga G, Varro A, Dimaline R, Thompson DG, Dockray GJ. Feeding-dependent depression of melanin-concentrating hormone and melanin-concentrating hormone receptor-1 expression in vagal afferent neurones. Neuroscience 2006;137:1405–1415.
32. Covasa M, Ritter RC. Rats maintained on high-fat diets exhibit reduced satiety in response to CCK and bombesin. Peptides 1998;19:1407–1415.
33. Covasa M, Ritter RC. Adaptation to high-fat diet reduces inhibition of gastric emptying by CCK and intestinal oleate. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2000;278:R166–R170.
35. Ogbonnaya S, Kaliaperumal C. Vagal nerve stimulator: evolving trends. J Nat Sci Biol Med 2013;4:8–13.
36. Delgado-Aros S, Locke GR 3rd, Camilleri M, et al. Obesity is associated with increased risk of gastrointestinal symptoms: a population-based study. Am J Gastroenterol 2004;99:1801–1806.
37. Schneider JM, Brücher BL, Küper M, Saemann K, Königsrainer A, Schneider JH. Multichannel intraluminal impedance measurement of gastroesophageal reflux in patients with different stages of morbid obesity. Obes Surg 2009;19:1522–1529.
38. Wu JC, Mui LM, Cheung CM, Chan Y, Sung JJ. Obesity is associated with increased transient lower esophageal sphincter relaxation. Gastroenterology 2007;132:883–889.
39. Kouklakis G, Moschos J, Kountouras J, Mpoumponaris A, Molyvas E, Minopoulos G. Relationship between obesity and gastroesophageal reflux disease as recorded by 3-hour esophageal pH monitoring. Rom J Gastroenterol 2005;14:117–121.
40. Pandolfino JE, El-Serag HB, Zhang Q, Shah N, Ghosh SK, Kahrilas PJ. Obesity: a challenge to esophagogastric junction integrity. Gastroenterology 2006;130:639–649.
41. Nilsson M, Lundegårdh G, Carling L, Ye W, Lagergren J. Body mass and reflux oesophagitis: an oestrogen-dependent association? Scand J Gastroenterol 2002;37:626–630.
42. Hautanen A. Synthesis and regulation of sex hormone-binding globulin in obesity. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 2000;24 Suppl 2:S64–S70.
43. Hong D, Khajanchee YS, Pereira N, Lockhart B, Patterson EJ, Swanstrom LL. Manometric abnormalities and gastroesophageal reflux disease in the morbidly obese. Obes Surg 2004;14:744–749.
44. Jaffin BW, Knoepflmacher P, Greenstein R. High prevalence of asymptomatic esophageal motility disorders among morbidly obese patients. Obes Surg 1999;9:390–395.
45. Hellström PM, Grybäck P, Jacobsson H. The physiology of gastric emptying. Best Pract Res Clin Anaesthesiol 2006;20:397–407.
46. Delgado-Aros S, Kim DY, Burton DD, et al. Effect of GLP-1 on gastric volume, emptying, maximum volume ingested, and postprandial symptoms in humans. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2002;282:G424–G431.
47. Little TJ, Russo A, Meyer JH, et al. Free fatty acids have more potent effects on gastric emptying, gut hormones, and appetite than triacylglycerides. Gastroenterology 2007;133:1124–1131.
48. Zahorska-Markiewicz B, Jonderko K, Lelek A, Skrzypek D. Gastric emptying in obesity. Hum Nutr Clin Nutr 1986;40:309–313.
49. Wright RA, Krinsky S, Fleeman C, Trujillo J, Teague E. Gastric emptying and obesity. Gastroenterology 1983;84:747–751.
50. Brennan IM, Seimon RV, Luscombe-Marsh ND, Otto B, Horowitz M, Feinle-Bisset C. Effects of acute dietary restriction on gut motor, hormone and energy intake responses to duodenal fat in obese men. Int J Obes (Lond) 2011;35:448–456.
51. Swartz TD, Duca FA, Covasa M. Differential feeding behavior and neuronal responses to CCK in obesity-prone and -resistant rats. Brain Res 2010;1308:79–86.
52. Baudry C, Reichardt F, Marchix J, et al. Diet-induced obesity has neuroprotective effects in murine gastric enteric nervous system: involvement of leptin and glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor. J Physiol 2012;590:533–544.
53. Kellow JE, Delvaux M, Azpiroz F, Camilleri M, Quigley EM, Thompson DG. Principles of applied neurogastroenterology: physiology/motility-sensation. Gut 1999;45 Suppl 2:II17–II24.
54. Hyland NP, Rybicka JM, Ho W, Pittman QJ, Macnaughton WK, Sharkey KA. Adaptation of intestinal secretomotor function and nutrient absorption in response to diet-induced obesity. Neurogastroenterol Motil 2010;22:602–e171.
56. Wang X, Soltesz V, Axelson J, Andersson R. Cholecystokinin increases small intestinal motility and reduces enteric bacterial overgrowth and translocation in rats with surgically induced acute liver failure. Digestion 1996;57:67–72.
57. Wisén O, Johansson C. Gastrointestinal function in obesity: motility, secretion, and absorption following a liquid test meal. Metabolism 1992;41:390–395.
58. Kiely JM, Noh JH, Graewin SJ, Pitt HA, Swartz-Basile DA. Altered intestinal motility in leptin-deficient obese mice. J Surg Res 2005;124:98–103.
59. Bertrand RL, Senadheera S, Markus I, et al. A Western diet increases serotonin availability in rat small intestine. Endocrinology 2011;152:36–47.
60. Bertrand RL, Senadheera S, Tanoto A, et al. Serotonin availability in rat colon is reduced during a Western diet model of obesity. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2012;303:G424–G434.
62. Mushref MA, Srinivasan S. Effect of high fat-diet and obesity on gastrointestinal motility. Ann Transl Med 2013;1:14.